Framing And Controlling Media Discourse On Terrorism Criminology Essay

Framing And Controlling Media Discourse On Terrorism Criminology Essay Following the September 11 attacks in 2001 in America, terrorism obtained a global reputation and public reaction throughout the world. Terrorism is not a new phenomenon. It has existed from centuries ago. But that time (September 11, 2001) America was the terrorists target. It was the first time that such massive attack was spread among people around the world by live news. In recent years, the number of stories and news about terrorist and terrorism discourses has been increased, especially after September 11, 2001 in America and July 7, 2005 in London. The Media and the government, as the key institutions in every society, play significant role to create public knowledge toward terrorist and terrorism. It seems that the media, as a tool for presentation of the governments policy, is used and controlled by government in coverage of news about terrorist and terrorism themes. In this essay I am going to address this question: who (which organisation) is managing and controlling media content and discourse about terrorism? According to literatures, (e.g. Hoffman 2006; Paletz 1992) the media is affected directly by governments policy. On the other hand, the media may do the terrorists favours because the media can be also used by terrorists to spread their own news, information and beliefs across society and the world. Altheide (2006), Hoffman (2006) and paletz and Boiney (1992) argue that the media itself plays main role in managing and framing media discourse on terrorist. However, it seems that the media is a device that is used by both government and terrorists to impact on the public mind. Thus, they can utilize the media, negatively or positively, to achieve their goals, meaning that the media does not have complete control over its contents. The reminder of this essay contains of section 2 that discusses about the definition of terrorism,. In section 3 addresses the question of the essay. Finally, section 4 provides the conclusion of the essay. Terrorism and Terrorist In fact, in the last hundred years, terrorism has not much changed. However; a unique and complete definition of this phenomenon does not exist. Despite the expansion of terrorism and its importance for the international security, defining the term terrorism is still faced with uncertainty. One of the main reasons for this ambiguity may be the diversity of terrorists goals and the variety of terrorism forms. Therefore, there is no universally definition of terrorism. On the whole, the word terrorism (terror) means the panic and fear. Common definition of terrorism refers to violent acts and aggressive behaviours which lead to create fear or terror among people. Hoffman (2006) quotes from terrorism group that violent actionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. are shocking. We want to shock people; everywhereà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.It is our way of communicating with the people. The concept of shock suggests creating fear and murder, threats and intimidation among people. Among various definitions of terrorism, some of them are provided below: The United State Department of Defence (DOD) define terrorism as the unlawful use of violence or threat of violence to install fear and coerce governments or societies. Terrorism is often motivated by religious, political, or other ideological beliefs and committed in the pursuit of goals that are usually political. According to United Nation in (1992) terrorism means: An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby- in contrast to assassination- the direct targets of violence are not the main targets.(http://www.terrorism-research.com) The U.S Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) describes terrorism as: the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives. Taylor (1986) cited in Cottle (2006) sees terrorism as the violence which is done by none -sates groups or individuals. Therefore, he believes that terrorism is not a state-oriented action. Cottle (2006) also believes that Taylors view is more appropriate than the view that points to the state terrorism. Taylors view (1986) is discussable since it seems that in countries with dictatorial government, state is upper hand in terror of oppositions. However, nowadays terrorism is an activity which is related to a particular actors or groups with special ideas. For example, some countries may tend to related terrorism to extremist Muslims. According to Gerrits (1992) cited in Paletz and Schmid (1992) [t]he media may provide insurgent terrorists with a good dose of the oxygen of publicity, but censorship can provide a government with the narcotic of secrecy, which is an even bigger danger to democracy. Cottle (2006) argues that the words terrorists and terrorism are used to say that actions of rebels or/ and oppositions are unlawful and illegitimate. Taheri (1987) says for one mans terrorist will always be anothers freedom fighter, but it can be said with certainly that terrorism is what terrorism does. Although there is not a single view and perspective on terrorism description across the world, terrorism and terrorism related actions carry common concepts which are fear and illegitimating. Types of terrorism To identify who has upper hand in media discourse on terrorist it may be useful to study the types of terrorism. State Terrorism: state terrorism usually refers to the state or states which intervene in the internal affairs of other governments in order to create fear or support of military operations, to weaken and overthrow a government. Domestic Terrorism: This kind of terrorism usually does anti-government activities to create fear among people to obtain attention (Powel, 2011). International terrorism: Emergence of international terrorism has increased in year 1983 (after the explosion of the Marine Battalion Landing Team Headquarters at Beirut International Airport.), and nowadays a considerable rise in international violence, especially in Asian countries, can be seen, especially after 2000 and 2001. The world has witnessed the victim of humans by international terrorism. It seems that international terrorism consists of domestic terrorism and state terrorism which support domestic terrorists. For example, serial explosions in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan, in which thousands of women and children are sent to the slaughterhouse, can be interpreted as international terrorism activity. Cyber terrorism: Dennings (2000) defines cyber terrorism as a violent attack to computer programmes, networks and secret information that leads to a severe fear and economic and political losses. Cyber terrorism is much more serious than the activity of hacker because cyber terrorism aims critical infrastructures of information technology of a country or government to obtain important information in order to use it against that government and/or special group. As the main classical tool of terrorism is explosion and firearms, the main weapon of cyber terrorist is computer. There are many ways that terrorists can use the computer as a terrorism device. The most important methods of cyber terrorism are hacking and computer viruses, electronic espionage, identity theft and destruction or manipulation of information. Who has upper hand in media discourse on terrorism? This section is going to investigate the source of the media discourse on terrorism. On the whole, if we identify who (government, the media itself or terrorist) benefits from the forming the media content about terrorism we may address better the main question of the essay. The Media or government? The media are at the heart of events because the media would like to break news. Therefore, all the discussions about terrorism come from the media, especially after the September 11 terrorist attacks because it is the media that distribute the news of the terrorism and people are informed formally about the events by the media. Media, in particular, old media such as television, radio and newspaper, has become a platform for covering and publishing the terrorists activities in recent years. As Paletz and Boiney (1992) discusses, Laqueurs (1977) indicates that terrorists tend to attack free societies. The terrorist rational is that the media is free in these societies and, therefore, media can cover violent event and publish the related news immediately. It may mean that in tighten societies the media content and news are controlled by the government and violent events may not be covered completely by the media in such societies. For example, in countries such as Spain and Italy, the press has been prohibited to cover and spread terrorist notice. (Obalance, 1989) .This is what that terrorist does not like it. The media are very well suited for the purposes of terrorists. Terrorists utilize different types of media to informed public people about their targets, values and ideas. Hoffman (2006) argues that terrorism can reach a wider target audience with the media because without media the effect of the act would be glancing. Without massive news coverage the terrorist act would resemble the proverbial tree falling in the forest: if no one learned of an incident, it would be as if it had not occurred. (Nacos 2000) Furthermore, Altheide (2006) discusses that the media is seen as an important part of publics life and known as a kind of communication which conveys news and information beyond the margins. Therefore, the media is seen as a tool which can be used by various institutions and for different targets. The media is important for terrorists because without the media they cannot spread the terror news and also they can use the media as leverage on the governments to gain their political goals (Hoffman, 2006). As the media is known as a linker between government and public it is, therefore, the best tool which government can use to inform people about incidents. Nowadays, the media have an inevitable role in promoting government programs and in creating an atmosphere to shape public opinion and decisions. Therefore, the media always has been regarded by governments. Governments with assistance of the media have achieved the unique power in the domestic and foreign area .Statesmen with using the media implement their policies and programs. Therefore, it is obvious that the government in each country have considerable dominance on the media. It can be seen that the media is a tool in the hands of statesmen and cannot act fully independently. Therefore, it might be true to say that when we discuss about the role of the media on framing and managing terrorism discourses, we investigate, in fact, the role and power of the sate which control the media content. However, one may say that the media itself is the first in managing and forming the contents on terrorism because reaction of the media to a terror and the way that the media coverage the related news are different and this may be criticized for damaging effects. The media may contribute terrorists to distribute fear among people or willingly and unwillingly provide terrorists with important information that worsen the situation in favour of terrorism and against the security and peace. This may cause authorities to meet some demands of terrorists to render the peace and calmness to the society. Cottle(2006) discusses that the media can have a progressive role in relation to violence and terror. In other words, it seems that media can encourage people to think about the causes and effects of terror and violence. This leads to form a pubic judge from people on the events. Cottle (2006) calls this phenomenon as democratize violence. However, in most cases the media may censor the fact of incidents, by media owners such as government, in corporate with public authorities to control and constraint the understanding of people of the event. (Paletz and Boiney, 1992). According to Nosseke (1985) cited in Paletz and Boiney (1992) the best way to avoid the impact of the mass media is to prevent the occurrences of terrorist attacks. Nevertheless, it is unlikely that the media, especially the old media, form and manage all news of terrorism directly and independently without the control of the governmental authorities. Terrorism Since terrorism likes a permanent non-normal situation and fear after its act and media contributes to create such a situation, terrorism is the first to wish control over the media. Miller (1982) argues that there is a relationship between media and terrorism. This relationship is inseparable because the media always covers the terrors news. Terrorism also would like to receive attention of the media. Terrorism, like an ill mannered enfant terrible, is the medias stepchild, a stepchild which the media, unfortunately, can neither completely ignore deny.(Powell, 2011) There are various factors which encourage terrorist to use different types of the media (e.g. the Internet) such as depressing their enemies such as government, creating fear among public, being famous to the public by spreading their targets and release their massages through the media. New media, in particular the Internet, has been increasingly used by terrorists to reach their goals. The evidence shows that the old media has been replaced by the Internet especially in covering terrorism discourses because of accessing speed to the news and events on the Internet. Nowadays, terrorists are not restricted geographically and are not dependent on a particular state politically or financially. To reach their murderous goals, they rely on their advanced communication capabilities, including the Internet. All terrorists have particular websites where they can communicate with their readers and followers and also can convey their propaganda. According to Hoffman (2006), almost without exception, all major (and many minor) terrorist and insurgent groups have Web sites. He then quotes from an American Internet researcher at the U.S. governments Foreign Broadcast and Information Service (FBIS): These days, if youre not on the web, you dont exist. Thus, in virtual space and t he new media environment terrorism is able to manage the media discourse and contents on the terrorism issues more freely than the traditional media because public authorities of a society can control over the old media much better than the new media though government, for example, can block some websites and filter them. Terrorism and the Internet both are related to each other. First, the Internet is a space for the both group and individual terrorists to spread their messages of hate and violence. Second, both individuals and groups have tried to attack some computer networks. This attack is known as cyber-terrorism. Communication via computer is ideal for terrorists because it cannot be controlled, limited or censored and it is free to access for everyone. Moreover, the audiences of the Internet are massive, larger than old media and it is easy, fast and inexpensive to access. More importantly, new media audiences can access a multimedia environment. For example, they can use texts, videos and songs simultaneously. Many Internet sites are used by terrorist for psychological war against governments and their military. They put terrible images and movie clips of executed hostages and captives on web sites or show militaries vehicles which have been blown up with roadside bombings or suicide. For example, Al-Zarqawi in May 2004 put on the Internet some films of cutting off the head of a US hostage. Sometimes terrorists use famous web sites like YouTube which is the best place to spread terrorists news and notices is. Terrorists use text messages and video to weak the enemy morale and scare him. Thus, it seems that terrorism is not controllable with the existence of the new media. They are able publish easily their own news, values and activities with the new media (and even with some news channel of TV). The audience can access the original publications of terrorist the Internet. This suggests that terrorism has upper hand in managing the media discourses on terrorism. Conclusion According to the literatures, it is still difficult to identify who is behind the media content and discourses on terrorism or who manages the media about the terrorism issues. However, nowadays, it can be seen that terrorism can use not only the old media but also electronic and virtual media. The media is very important for terrorists. For example, they use the media to spread some films and videos of attacks to create fear and force government or politicians to do a certain work for terrorists. With the development of the new media such as the Internet, mobile phone and etc. terrorism has been capable to manage the media contents. In this respect, terrorism has upper hand in framing the new media content for itself, though power is in hands of dominant government. Government and politician authorities use the media to apply their policy and control society. Therefore, they usually delete some terrorism related news, present incomplete information and delayed news to the audience or may be able to filter some web sites that are against of their polices. Therefore, we can conclude that the media is an important tool to frame and create discourses on terrorism and both government and terrorist have been trying to control and use the media, old and new, for their particular objectives in various ways. It seems that even in a society with free expression and complete democracy the media cannot choose a policy completely against governments policy, especially in the terrorism issues because government and state has power and control over the media. However, in the virtual environment of the media (e.g. the Internet) the control power of the government has been violated and terrorists have been able to present themselves more freely and form their ow n news contents. Rference Altheide,D.L. (2006). Terrorism and the politics of fear. Lanham, Md.: AaltaMira press. Chapter (6). Cottle,S.. (Ed.). (2006). From terrorism to the global war on terror: The media politics of outrage In Mediatizd conflict: Developments in media and conflict studies. Maiden Head: OU press. Dennings, D. (2000). Cyber terrorism, Testimony before the special Oversight Panel of Terrorism Committee on Armed Services, US House of Representative, 23 may 2000. Georgetown University.(http://www.cs.georgetown.edu/~denning/infosec/cyberterror.html). FBIS, Near East/ South Asia. Israel: Palestinian Television Broadcasts Clip Encour- again Martyrdom. Maarive (Tel Aviv) (Hebrew), August 11, 2003. Gerrits, R.P.J.M. (1992). Terrorists perspectives: memories In Palatz, D. Schmid A. (eds) (1992) Terrorism and the media (pp. 29-61). London: Sage. Hoffman,B. (2006). Inside Terrorism. Revised And Expanded Edition. Clombia University Press Laquers, W. (1977). Terrorism. Boston: Little, Brown. Miller, A.H. (1982). Terrorism, the media, and the law. New York, NY: Transnational Publishers Inc.,U.S. Nacos, B.L. (2000). Accomplice or Witness? The Medias Role in Terrorism. Current History-The Journal Contemporary World Affairs. Nosseke,H.(1985). The impact of mass media on terrorists, supports, and the public at large. In A.Merari (Ed.), On terrorism and combating terrorism (pp.87-94). Frederick, MD: University Publications of America Obalance, Edgar. (1989). Terrorism in the 1980s. (P.118) New York: Sterling Publishing Co. Inc. Paletz,D. Boiney, J. ( 1992). Researchers perpectives. In Palatz, D. Schmid A. (eds) (1992) Terrorism and the media (pp. 6-28). London: Sage. Powell, A.K (2011). framing Islam: An analysis of U.S. Media coverage of Terrorism since 9/11. Communication research, 62:1 pp: 90-112. Taheri, A. (1987). Holy Terror: Inside the world of Islamic Terrorism, Adler Adler. P.3. Taylor,P.(1986). The semantics of political violence: In P. Golding, G. Murdock and P. Schlesinger (eds) Communication politics. Leicester: Leicester University Press. DOD Dictionary of Military and Associated terms. WWW.dtic.mil/doctrine/dod-dictionary/data/t/7591.html. [14 Nov, 2011] http://www.terrorism-research.com/ http://www.fbi.gov/albuquerque/priorities

Female Genital Mutilation Essay

Female genital mutilation includes â€Å"all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons† (WHO). The World Health Organization states that 140,000,000 girls and women worldwide are currently living with the consequences of female genital mutilation. The procedure can be carried out on babies as young as two weeks old and on woman in their twenties. The age at which girls are cut can vary widely from country to country, and even within countries. Most often, female genital mutilation happens before girls reach puberty (Women’s Health). In Africa, there is an estimated 101,000,000 girls 10 years old and above that have undergone female genital mutilation. The procedure is generally performed without anesthesia by an older woman who acts as the local midwife and it is often conducted in the girl’s home. However, there are a few villages that have all the girls lay next to each other and the circumciser cuts all of them in a row. The World Health Organization recognizes four types of female genital mutilation. Type 1 and Type 2 are closely related. Type I is the removal of the clitoral hood, which is rarely, if ever, performed alone. Type 2 is called a clitoridectomy. This procedure is the partial or total removal of the clitoris and inner labia, with or without the removal of the outer labia. In a 1998 report from the World Health Organization, they wrote â€Å"the clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger, pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object†. The sharp object can be a knife, pair of scissors, cut glass, sharpened rocks or fingernails. Medical personnel are usually not involved. However, in Egypt, Sudan and Kenya, these procedures are carried out by health professionals (Pruthi). Type 3  is called infibulation. This is the process of removing all external genitalia and the fusing of the wound, leaving a small hole for passage of urine and menstrual blood. A pinhole is created by inserting something (usually a twig or rock salt) into the wound before it closes. The wound may be sewed with surgical thread, and in some cases agave or acacia thorns are used to hold the sides together. Then, the girl’s legs are tied together from hips down to her ankles and left to heal for 2-6 weeks. The infibulated woman’s vulva is opened for sexual intercourse by her husband’s penis or a knife. This creates a tear which they gradually rip more and more until the opening is sufficient enough to admit the penis. In some women, â€Å"the scar tissue is so hardened and overgrown with keloidal formations that it can only be cut with very sharp surgical scissors† (Lightfoot-Klein). If the woman gets pregnant, they will cut her open with a knife in time to give birth. After they give birth, many women ask to have the infibulation restored. Skoll World Forum Type IV is unclassified and it includes â€Å"pricking, piercing or incising of the clitoris and/or labia; stretching of the clitoris and/or labia; cauterization of the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scraping of tissue surrounding the vaginal opening or cutting of the vagina; introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding or for the purposes of tightening or narrowing it; and any other procedure that falls under the definition of female genital mutilation above† (Reyners). The origins of the practice are relatively unknown. â€Å"There’s no way of knowing the origins of FGM (female genital mutilation), it appears in many different cultures, from Australian aboriginal tribes to different African societies,† states medical historian David Gollaher, president and CEO of the California Healthcare Institute. There is a reference to it on the sarcophagus of Sit-hedjhotep, dating back to the Egypt’s Middle Kingdom. The inscription says â€Å"But if a man wants to know how to live, he should recite (a magical spell) every day, after his flesh has been rubbed with the b3d (an unknown substance) of an uncircumcised girl and the flakes of skin of an  uncircumcised bald man† (Knight, pp317). The English explorer William Browne reported in 1799 that infibulation was carried out on the slaves, coming from Egypt, to prevent pregnancy. Traders simply paid a higher price for women who were infibulated. Slave patterns across Africa account for the patterns of female genital mutilation found there. Egypt and Africa are not the only continents that have a history of female genital mutilation. Gynecologists in 19th century Europe and the United States would remove the clitoris for various reasons, including treating masturbation, because they believed that masturbation caused physical and mental disorders (Rodriguez, p323) Isacc Baker Brown was an English gynecologist who believed that the â€Å"unnatural irritation of the clitoris caused epilepsy, hysteria and mania†. A paper that was written in 1985 and published in the Obstetrical and Gynecological Survey says that â€Å"the last clitoridectomy was performed in the United States in the 1960s to treat hysteria, erotomania and lesbianism† (Cutner, p135) The practice of female genital mutilation is most common in the western, eastern, and north-eastern region of Africa, in some countries in Asia and the Middle East (WHO). There are currently 27 countries in sub-Saharan and Northeast Africa, and immigrant communities, which still perform female genital mutilation. Countries such as Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan are predominantly Type 3. The list of health complications that arise from female genital mutilation is very extensive. There are no health benefits and it rooted in gender inequality, ideas about purity, and is an attempt to control a woman’s sexuality. Immediate complications can include sever pain, shock, bleeding, tetanus or sepsis, urine retention, open sores in the genital region and injury to nearby genital tissue. African Women.Org state that the long term consequences from the procedure are: Repeated urinary infection because of the narrowing of the urinary outlet which prevents the complete emptying of urine from the bladder. Extremely painful menstruation due to the buildup of urine and blood in the uterus leading to inflammation of the bladder and internal sexual organs. Formation of scars and keloid on the vulva wound. The growth of dermoid cysts which may result in abscesses. Formation of fistula – the rupture of the vagina and/or uterus. Vulval abscesses. Severe pain during intercourse which may consist of physical discomfort and  psychological traumatization. Difficult child birth which in case of long and obstructed labour may lead to foetal death and brain damage of the infant. In the case of infibulation acute and chronic pelvic infection leading to infertility and/or tubal pregnancy. Accumulation of blood and blood clots in the uterus and/or vagina. Physical short term and long term complications are not the only result from female genital mutilation. Mental anguish can result from this brutal procedure. When Waris Dirie was about five years old, she was left in a makeshift shelter under a tree for several days to recover from her â€Å"operation†. She was told that God wanted her to do this and she wondered why God hated her so much. When she was thirteen, her father wanted her to marry a man in his 60s. Waris ran across the dessert to Mogadishu where she lived with relatives until she made it London and lived with her aunt. Whilst in London, a photographer spotted her and she became a supermodel, appearing in Chanel campaigns and was in the James Bond film The Living Daylights (Saner). Waris’s popularity and status helped to give her a voice and she went public in 1997 in a magazine interview, to tell the world about what happened to her and her aspiration to stop female genital mutilation. Waris means Desert Flower, a flower that can endure even the roughest of climates. She started a foundation named Desert Flower that seeks to end the crime of female genital mutilation by raising public awareness, creating networks, organizing events and educational programs. Her foundation Desert Flower also supports victims of female genital mutilation. Last month, in Berlin, she opened the first of what will be several medical centers to offer help to women who have suffered from female genital mutilation. Waris Dirie isn’t the only one that is opposed to female genital mutilation. Others, such as the World Health Organization, have been working to educate woman on their rights to their own bodies. Many laws have been enacted to protect these women, but few abide by these laws. Eighteen countries—Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Chad, Cà ´te d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Togo—have enacted laws criminalizing female genital mutilation. The penalties range from a minimum of three months to a maximum of life in prison. Several countries also impose monetary fines. The Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act of 1985 made female genital mutilation unlawful in  England and in Wales. However, there is evidence that people used a loophole to take young girls abroad temporarily to carry out the procedure. In the United States, Cornell University Law School teaches that â€Å"Except as provided in subsection, whoever knowingly circumcises, excises, or infibulates the whole or any part of the labia majora or labia minora or clitoris of another person who has not attained the age of 18 years shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 5 years, or both†. There are those out there that are for female genital mutilation. Many people from communities that practice it say that it is rooted in local culture and that the tradition has been passed from one generation to another. Culture and the preservation of cultural identity serve as the underlying impetus for continuing the practice. Many women will be social pariahs if they don’t go through the ritual. They cannot attend any public outing or funeral. If they children, they too will be outcast. Some of those who support female genital mutilation also justify it on grounds of hygiene and aesthetics, with notions that female genitalia are dirty and that a girl who has not undergone the procedure is unclean. The women that oppose the end of female genital mutilation compare it breast enlargements or rhinoplasty. They ask â€Å"why is okay for these women to change and shape their bodies to look the way that they want them to?† The answer, simply, is that these procedures are a women’s choice. They are eighteen years old and chose to have these procedures done to them. Female genital mutilation is child abuse and a violation of the basic human rights of women. The more we know about this procedure, the more we can do to put an end to it. References â€Å"Consequences of FGM.† African Women Organisation. N.p., 2009. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. . Cornell University Law School â€Å"18 USC  § 116 – Female Genital Mutilation.† LII. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. . Cutner, L.P. â€Å"Female genital mutilation† Pg 135. July 1985. Web. 18 Oct. 2013 http:/ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov â€Å"Female Circumcision.† Skoll World Forum. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Oct. 2013. . â€Å"Female Genital Cutting Fact Sheet.† Womenshealth.gov. N.p., 15 Dec. 2009. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. . â€Å"Female Genital Mutilation.† WHO. World Health Organization, Feb. 2013. Web. 16 Oct. 2013. . Gollaher, David Discovery News.† DNews. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2013. . Knight, Mary. â€Å"Curing Cut or Ritual Mutliation.† Chicago Journal 92.2 (2001): n. pag. JSTOR. June 2001. Web. 16 Oct. 2013. . Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny â€Å"Erroneous Belief Systems Underlying Female Genital Mutilation in Sub-Saharan Africa.† Template. University of Maryland, 22 May 1994. Web. 16 Oct. 2013. . Pruthi, Priyanka. â€Å"Child Protection from Violence, Exploitation and Abuse.† UNICEF. N.p., 22 July 2013. Web. 14 Oct. 2013. . Reyners, Marcel. â€Å"Health Consequences of Female Genital Mutilation.† Health Consequences of Female Genital Mutilation 4.4 (2004): 243. Health Consequences of Female Genital Mutilation. Dec. 2004. Web. 18 Oct. 2013. . Rodriguez, Sarah W. â€Å"Project MUSE – Rethinking the History of Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy: American Medicine and Female Sexuality in the Late Nineteenth Century.† Rethinking the History of Femle Circumcision and Clitoridectomy 63.3 (2008): 323-47. Project MUSE – Rethi nking the History of Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy: American Medicine and Female Sexuality in the Late Nineteenth Century. July 2008. Web. 18 Oct. 2013. . Saner, Emine. â€Å"Waris Dirie: ‘Female Genital Mutilation Is Pure Violence against Girls'† The Guardian. N.p., 14 Oct. 2013. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. .

Example and Illustration Essay Topics: No Longer a Mystery

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Plato s Tripartite Theory Of The Mind Essay - 1756 Words

In the days of Plato’s existence, the soul was a living, non-material entity that was created before the person and would continue on after the person was no more, unlike contemporary concepts of the soul, this concept was not based on religion or religious views as it didn’t exist then (Stevenson, Haberman, Matthews Wright, 2013). Plato believed that one must endeavour to take care of their soul as it is eternal and more important than the body (Stevenson, Haberman, Matthews Wright, 2013). Plato’s tripartite theory of the mind, is one of the most notable ancient theories of the soul in the fourth century, as well as in contemporary philosophical study (Lorenz, 2009). It focusses around the idea that the mind or soul - both terms are used interchangeably - is divided into three parts which are appetite, reason and spirit (Lorenz, 2009; Stevenson, Haberman, Matthews Wright, 2013). Since Plato, there have been other similar concepts, especially in modern psychol ogy, formed around the idea that an individual is subject to multiple divisions of oneself, the most memorable being Sigmund Freud’s notion of the conscious and subconscious with the Id, ego and superego (Stevenson, Haberman, Matthews Wright, 2013). The notions of weakness of will and self-control can be explained through the exploration of Plato’s tripartite theory, as they can be seen as a representation of unbalance and balance between appetite, spirit and reason. Throughout this essay, I will explain theShow MoreRelatedThe And Theory Of The Tripartite Soul1765 Words   |  8 Pageshistorical significance of Plato has impacted generations for more than two thousand years. In fact, his writings, which consisted of mostly dialogues, has probably had more influence than any set of writings in the Western World apart from the Judeo-Christian Bible. 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